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Convergence insufficiency

AI overview

Convergence insufficiency is a sensory and neuromuscular anomaly of the binocular vision system, characterized by a reduced ability of the eyes to turn towards each other, or sustain convergence.

Key points
  • CI is not a learning disability but can cause difficulty learning to read.
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    Convergence insufficiency is not a learning disability.
  • Some children with CI may be confused for having dyslexia.
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    some children with the condition who are struggling to learn to read can be confused for having dyslexia due to difficulty learning to read
  • CI can occur as a consequence of traumatic brain injury.
    source quote
    Convergence insufficiency (CI) and other visual dysfunctions are known to occur as a consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI).
  • Up to 79% of TBI patients report visual symptoms likely related to CI.
    source quote
    It has been reported that up to 79% of TBI patients report visual symtoms likely to relate to CI.
  • Prevalence among fifth and sixth grade children is 13%.
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    Among fifth and sixth grade children convergence insufficiency is 13%.
  • Standardized prevalence in school and clinic settings is 4.2–6%.
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    investigators have reported a prevalence of 4.2–6% in school and clinic settings
Symptoms
  • Double vision (diplopia)
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    diplopia (double vision)
  • Eye strain (asthenopia)
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    asthenopia (eye strain)
  • Transient blurred vision
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    transient blurred vision
  • Difficulty sustaining near-visual function
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    difficulty sustaining near-visual function
  • Abnormal fatigue
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    abnormal fatigue
  • Headache
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    headache
  • Abnormal postural adaptation
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    abnormal postural adaptation
  • Difficulty making eye contact
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    difficulty with making eye contact have been noted as a complaint amongst those affected
Diagnosis
  • Accommodative amplitudes should be measured in symptomatic patients due to concurrent accommodative insufficiency.
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    accommodative amplitudes should therefore also be measured in symptomatic patients
Treatment
  • CI may be treated with convergence exercises prescribed by an eyecare specialist.
    source quote
    Convergence insufficiency may be treated with convergence exercises prescribed by an eyecare specialist trained in orthoptics or binocular vision anomalies
  • Pencil push-ups therapy involves bringing a pencil to within 2–3 cm of the eye for about 15 minutes per day, five times per week.
    source quote
    The patient brings a pencil slowly to within 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) of the eye just above the nose about fifteen minutes per day five times per week.
  • Office-based accommodative/vergence therapy is the most effective treatment.
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    office-based accommodative/vergence therapy is the most effective treatment of convergence insufficiency
  • Computer exercises combined with office-based vision therapy are more effective than pencil pushups or computer exercises alone.
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    computer exercises when combined with office/based vision therapy/orthoptics were more effective than "pencil pushups" or computer exercises alone for convergency insufficiency in nine- to eighteen-year-old children.
  • Surgical correction is available but should be approached with caution as CI generally does not improve with surgery.
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    the decision to proceed with surgery should be made with caution as convergence insufficiency generally does not improve with surgery.
  • Bilateral medial rectus resection is the preferred type of surgery.
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    Bilateral medial rectus resection is the preferred type of surgery.
  • Both positive and negative fusional vergence can be trained, and vergence training should normally include both.
    source quote
    vergence training should normally include both.
Red flags
  • Children experiencing blurry/double letters, tiredness, or headaches when reading should consult an optometrist.
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    Children struggling with symptoms such as letters appearing blurry or double and experience tiredness or headaches when reading should consult an optometrist.
  • Patients should be warned about the possibility of uncrossed diplopia at distance fixation after surgery.
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    the patient should be warned about the possibility of uncrossed diplopia at distance fixation after surgery
Prognosis

Orthoptic exercises led to longstanding improvements of asthenopic symptoms in both adults and children. After surgery, uncrossed diplopia at distance fixation typically resolves within one to three months. The exophoria at near often recurs after several years, although most patients remain asymptomatic.

AI-synthesized from the Wikipedia article “Convergence insufficiency”. Not medical advice. Verify source →
Convergence Insufficiency
Other namesConvergence disorder
SpecialtyOphthalmology, optometry 

Convergence insufficiency is a sensory and neuromuscular anomaly of the binocular vision system, characterized by a reduced ability of the eyes to turn towards each other, or sustain convergence.

The symptoms and signs associated with convergence insufficiency are related to prolonged, visually demanding, near-centered tasks. They may include, but are not limited to, diplopia (double vision), asthenopia (eye strain), transient blurred vision, difficulty sustaining near-visual function, abnormal fatigue, headache, and abnormal postural adaptation, among others. In some cases, difficulty with making eye contact have been noted as a complaint amongst those affected.[1] Note that some Internet resources confuse convergence and divergence dysfunction, reversing them.[citation needed]

Complications

In some cases, convergence insufficiency can be the underlying cause of difficulty learning to read. As a result of the eyes not converging on the same point for sustained periods of time when reading, words can appear blurry or double because the brain is receiving two different images. Convergence insufficiency is not a learning disability. However, some children with the condition who are struggling to learn to read can be confused for having dyslexia due to difficulty learning to read. Children struggling with symptoms such as letters appearing blurry or double and experience tiredness or headaches when reading should consult an optometrist.[2][3][4]

Diagnosis of convergence insufficiency is made by an eye care professional skilled in binocular vision dysfunctions, such as an optometrist, ophthalmologist, or orthoptist to rule out any organic disease. Convergence insufficiency is characterized by one or more of the following diagnostic findings: patient symptoms, high exophoria at near, reduced accommodative convergence/accommodation ratio, receded near point of convergence, and low fusional vergence ranges and/or facility. Some patients with convergence insufficiency have concurrent accommodative insufficiency—accommodative amplitudes should therefore also be measured in symptomatic patients.

Convergence insufficiency can cause difficulty learning to read.[2][4][3]

Convergence insufficiency may be treated with convergence exercises prescribed by an eyecare specialist trained in orthoptics or binocular vision anomalies (see: vision therapy). Some cases of convergence insufficiency are successfully managed by prescription of eyeglasses, sometimes with therapeutic prisms.

Pencil push-ups therapy is performed at home. The patient brings a pencil slowly to within 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) of the eye just above the nose about fifteen minutes per day five times per week. Patients should record the closest distance that they could maintain fusion (keep the pencil from going double as long as possible) after each five minutes of therapy. Computer software may be used at home or in an orthoptist's/vision therapist's office to treat convergence insufficiency. A weekly 60-minute in-office therapy visit may be prescribed. This is generally accompanied with additional in-home therapy.[5]

In 2005, the Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial (CITT) published two randomized clinical studies. The first, published in Archives of Ophthalmology, demonstrated that computer exercises when combined with office/based vision therapy/orthoptics were more effective than "pencil pushups" or computer exercises alone for convergency insufficiency in nine- to eighteen-year-old children.[6] The second found similar results for adults 19 to 30 years of age.[7] In a bibliographic review of 2010, the CITT confirmed their view that office-based accommodative/vergence therapy is the most effective treatment of convergence insufficiency, and that substituting it in entirety or in part with other eye training approaches such as home-based therapy may offer advantages in cost but not in outcome.[8] A later study of 2012 confirmed that orthoptic exercises led to longstanding improvements of the asthenopic symptoms of convergence sufficiency both in adults and in children.[9] A 2020 Cochrane Review concludes that office-based vergence/accommodative therapy with home reinforcement is more effective than home-based pencil/target push-ups or home-based computer vergence/accommodative therapy for children. In adults, evidence of the effectiveness of various non-surgical interventions is less clear.[10]

Technical development has led to the introduction of virtual reality (VR)-based training for convergence insufficiency (CI). A systematic review published in 2025 aimed to conclude if VR-based training in CI is effective.[11] Due to the small number of relevant published studies (n=3) the authors could not draw any clear conclusions.

Both positive fusional vergence (PFV)[12] and negative fusional vergence (NFV)[13] can be trained, and vergence training should normally include both.[14][15] Surgical correction options are also available, but the decision to proceed with surgery should be made with caution as convergence insufficiency generally does not improve with surgery. Bilateral medial rectus resection is the preferred type of surgery. However, the patient should be warned about the possibility of uncrossed diplopia at distance fixation after surgery. This typically resolves within one to three months postoperatively. The exophoria at near often recurs after several years, although most patients remain asymptomatic.

Among fifth and sixth grade children convergence insufficiency is 13%.[16] In studies that used standardized definitions of convergence insufficiency, investigators have reported a prevalence of 4.2–6% in school and clinic settings. The standard definition of convergence insufficiency is exophoria greater at near than at distance, a receded near point of convergence, and reduced convergence amplitudes at near.[5]

Convergence insufficiency (CI) and other visual dysfunctions are known to occur as a consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It has been reported that up to 79% of TBI patients report visual symtoms likely to relate to CI.[17]

  1. ↑ "Convergence insufficiency". AOA. Retrieved 2024-12-25.
  2. 1 2 "Convergence insufficiency - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  3. 1 2 "Convergence Insufficiency | National Eye Institute". www.nei.nih.gov. Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  4. 1 2 devora. "Does Convergence Insufficiency Impact Reading?". Optometrists.org. Retrieved 2022-05-26.
  5. 1 2 The Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial (CITT) Study Group (Jan–Feb 2008). "The convergence insufficiency treatment trial: design, methods, and baseline data". Ophthalmic Epidemiology. 15 (1): 24–36. doi:10.1080/09286580701772037. ISSN 0928-6586. PMC 2782898. PMID 18300086.
  6. ↑ Scheiman, Mitchell (Jan 2005). "A randomized clinical trial of treatments for convergence insufficiency in children". Archives of Ophthalmology. 123 (1): 14–24. doi:10.1001/archopht.123.1.14. ISSN 0003-9950. PMID 15642806.
  7. ↑ Scheiman, Mitchell; Mitchell, G Lynn; Cotter, Susan; Kulp, Marjean Taylor; Cooper, Jeffrey; Rouse, Michael; et al. (Jul 2005). "A randomized clinical trial of vision therapy/orthoptics versus pencil pushups for the treatment of convergence insufficiency in young adults". Optometry and Vision Science. 82 (7): 583–95. doi:10.1097/01.opx.0000171331.36871.2f. ISSN 1040-5488. PMID 16044063. S2CID 9507706.
  8. ↑ Scheiman, Mitchell; Rouse, Michael; Kulp, Marjean Taylor; Cotter, Susan; Hertle, Richard; Mitchell, G Lynn (May 2009). "Treatment of Convergence Insufficiency in Childhood: A Current Perspective". Optometry and Vision Science. 86 (5): 420–428. doi:10.1097/OPX.0b013e31819fa712. ISSN 1040-5488. PMC 2821445. PMID 19319008. NIHMSID:NIHMS153855.
  9. ↑ Matti Westman; M. Johanna Liinamaa (May 2012). "Relief of asthenopic symptoms with orthoptic exercises in convergence insufficiency is achieved in both adults and children". Journal of Optometry. 5 (2): 62–67. doi:10.1016/j.optom.2012.03.002. PMC 3861273.
  10. ↑ Scheiman, Mitchell; Kulp, Marjean T; Cotter, Susan A; Lawrenson, John G; Wang, Lin; Li, Tianjing (2 December 2020). Cochrane Eyes and Vision Group (ed.). "Interventions for convergence insufficiency: a network meta-analysis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020 (12) CD006768. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006768.pub3. PMC 8092638. PMID 33263359.
  11. ↑ Islam, Torikul (2025). "A virtual approach: Systematic review and meta-analysis of virtual reality-based therapies for convergence insufficiency". Journal of Optometry. 18 (2) 100540. doi:10.1016/j.optom.2025.100540. PMC 11984992. PMID 40132241.
  12. ↑ P. Thiagarajan, Preethi; V. Lakshminarayanan, Vasudevan; W.R. Bobier, William R. (Jul 2010). "Effect of vergence adaptation and positive fusional vergence training on oculomotor parameters" (PDF). Optometry and Vision Science. 87 (7): 487–493. doi:10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181e19ec2. hdl:10012/3537. ISSN 1040-5488. PMID 20473234. S2CID 1634449.
  13. ↑ Daum, Kent M. (July 1986). "Negative vergence training in humans". Optometry and Vision Science. 63 (7): 487–496. doi:10.1097/00006324-198607000-00001. ISSN 1040-5488. PMID 3740204.
  14. ↑ Mitchell Scheiman; Bruce Wick (2008). Clinical Management of Binocular Vision: Heterophoric, Accommodative, and Eye Movement Disorders. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-7817-7784-1.
  15. ↑ Deshmukh, Saurabh; Magdalene, Damaris; Dutta, Pritam; Choudhury, Mitalee; Gupta, Krati (2017-07-01). "Clinical profile of nonstrabismic binocular vision anomalies in patients with asthenopia in North-East India". TNOA Journal of Ophthalmic Science and Research. 55 (3): 182. doi:10.4103/tjosr.tjosr_36_17. S2CID 79967219.
  16. ↑ Rouse, Michael W.; Borsting, Eric; Hyman, Leslie; Hussein, Mohamed; Cotter, Susan A.; Flynn, Mary; Scheiman, Mitchell; Gallaway, Michael; De Land, Paul N. (September 1999). "Frequency of Convergence Insufficiency Among Fifth and Sixth Graders". Optometry and Vision Science. 76 (9): 643–649. doi:10.1097/00006324-199909000-00022. PMID 10498006.
  17. ↑ Fox, Sandra M (2018). "Vision Rehabilitation After Traumatic Brain Injury". Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America. 30 (1): 171–188. doi:10.1016/j.pmr.2018.09.001. PMID 30470420.